Heliophysics: Evolving Solar Activity and the Climates of Space and Earth

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
1.1 Introduction......Page 17
16.6.2 Solar cycle-QBO interactions......Page 0
1.3 Transport of angular momentum and energy......Page 19
1.4 Dynamo action......Page 20
1.5 Extreme events and habitability......Page 22
1.6 Our remarkable, remarkably sensitive environment......Page 23
1.7 System complexity......Page 25
2 Long-term evolution of magnetic activity of Sun-like stars......Page 27
2.1 A brief history of the Sun: past, present, future......Page 28
2.2.1.1 Bipole emergence properties......Page 30
2.2.1.2 Active region structure and evolution......Page 34
2.2.1.3 Flux concentrations and radiance......Page 36
2.2.1.4 Flux dispersal......Page 37
2.2.3.1 Magnetic structure and dynamics......Page 41
2.2.3.2 Heating and radiation......Page 42
2.3.1 A brief review of stellar structure and evolution......Page 47
2.3.2 Solar and stellar activity......Page 51
2.3.3 Flares and eruptions......Page 53
2.4 Spots, faculae, network field, and spectral radiance......Page 56
2.5 Activity, rotation, and loss of angular momentum......Page 57
2.6 Dynamos: polar spots, small-scale field, and flux dispersal......Page 60
2.8 The Maunder minimum state of solar and heliospheric activity......Page 62
3.1 How do stars form?......Page 65
3.3 Disk winds......Page 71
3.5 What sets the initial angular momenta of stars?......Page 79
3.6 Protoplanetary disks and gravity......Page 82
3.7 Dust disk evolution......Page 85
3.8 Disk evaporation......Page 88
3.10 Concluding remarks......Page 93
4.2 Environmental limits for life as we know it......Page 95
4.3 The habitable zone and the effects of stellar heat......Page 97
4.4 The habitable zone and other stellar effects......Page 101
4.5 Earth before life......Page 102
4.6 The early history of terrestrial life......Page 105
4.7 The rise of oxygen......Page 106
4.9 The decline of carbon dioxide......Page 108
4.10 The loss of oceans and the end of plate tectonics......Page 110
4.11 The red giant Sun and the fate of habitable zone planets......Page 111
5.1 Magnetism with enthusiasm......Page 115
5.2 The many faces of solar convection......Page 117
5.2.1 Solar granulation......Page 118
5.2.2 Mesogranulation and supergranulation......Page 120
5.2.3 Giant cells, helioseismology, and the solar internal rotation......Page 123
5.2.4 Properties of giant convection cells......Page 125
5.3.1 Lagrangian chaos......Page 128
5.3.2 Small-scale dynamos......Page 129
5.3.3 The Sun’s magnetic carpet......Page 132
5.4 Global dynamos or “How to build a sunspot”......Page 134
5.4.1 Magnetism with a twist......Page 135
5.4.2 Dynamo saturation and open boundaries......Page 136
5.4.3 Of sunspots and shear......Page 138
5.5 Rotational shear and meridional circulation......Page 141
5.5.1 The Reynolds stress and gyroscopic pumping......Page 143
5.5.2 Warm poles and thermal winds......Page 145
5.5.3 Dynamical balances......Page 146
5.5.4 Stellar and planetary winds......Page 149
5.5.5 The solar tachocline......Page 150
5.6 Puzzles and prospects......Page 152
Appendix: Physical characteristics of the solar convection zone......Page 153
6.1 The dynamo problem......Page 157
6.2.1 Mean-field dynamo models......Page 159
6.2.1.2 Kinematic models with α-quenching......Page 165
6.2.2 Solar cycle models based on active region decay......Page 171
6.2.3 Models based on (magneto)hydrodynamical instabilities......Page 174
6.3.1 Cycle modulation through stochastic forcing......Page 175
6.3.2 Cycle modulation through the Lorentz force......Page 177
6.3.4 Intermittency......Page 179
6.3.5.1 The solar polar magnetic field as a precursor......Page 182
6.3.5.2 Model-based forecasting using solar data......Page 185
6.4.1 Early-type stars......Page 186
6.4.3 Solar-type stars......Page 189
6.4.4 Fully convective stars......Page 191
6.5 Outlook......Page 192
7.1 Introduction......Page 195
7.2.1 Field structure......Page 196
7.2.2.1 Secular variation......Page 200
7.2.2.3 Dipole reversals......Page 202
7.4.1 Earth......Page 206
7.4.2 Other terrestrial planets......Page 209
7.4.3 Gas planets......Page 210
7.5 Some basics of planetary dynamos......Page 211
7.6.1 Setup and parameters for geodynamo models......Page 215
7.6.2 Types of dynamo solutions......Page 217
7.6.3 Flow structure and field generation mechanism......Page 219
7.6.4 Comparison of geodynamo models with Earth’s field......Page 221
7.6.5 Scaling of magnetic field strength......Page 223
7.7.1 Mercury......Page 228
7.7.3 Saturn......Page 229
7.8 Outlook......Page 230
8.1 Introduction......Page 233
8.2 The heliospheric current sheet......Page 234
8.3 Latitudinal and solar-cycle variations of the solar wind......Page 235
8.4 Solar wind stream structure......Page 237
8.5.1 A one-dimensional model of high-speed stream evolution......Page 239
8.5.2 Stream evolution in two dimensions......Page 241
8.5.3 Stream evolution in three dimensions......Page 242
8.6 Transient disturbances in the solar wind......Page 247
8.7 The evolving global heliospheric magnetic field......Page 253
8.8 Long-term changes in the heliospheric magnetic field......Page 257
9.1 Introduction......Page 275
9.2.1 Direct measurements......Page 278
9.2.2 Terrestrial carbon and beryllium......Page 280
9.2.4.1 Variations on the 101–104-year time scale......Page 282
9.3 The physics of heliospheric cosmic-ray temporal variations......Page 283
9.3.1 Interstellar causes of cosmic-ray variations......Page 284
9.3.2 Cosmic-ray variations of heliospheric origin......Page 285
9.4 The transport of cosmic-ray particles in the heliosphere......Page 287
9.4.1 The boundary conditions......Page 289
9.5 Solar modulation of galactic cosmic rays......Page 291
9.6 Sample model simulations using the full transport equation......Page 293
9.6.1 Comparison of the GCR transport model with observations......Page 295
9.7 The Maunder minimum......Page 296
9.8.1 Physics of longer-term variations......Page 298
9.10 In conclusion......Page 299
10.1 Introduction......Page 301
10.2 Historical perspective......Page 306
10.3 Measuring solar irradiance and its variations......Page 310
10.3.1 Total irradiance......Page 311
10.3.2 Spectral irradiance......Page 314
10.4 Understanding and modeling solar irradiance variations......Page 317
10.5 Reconstructing historical irradiance changes......Page 322
10.6 Forecasting irradiance variations......Page 326
10.7 Summary......Page 327
11.1 Introduction......Page 331
11.2.2 Angular momentum influences......Page 337
11.2.3 Electromagnetic influences......Page 339
11.3.1 Luminosity......Page 343
11.3.3 Orbital or Milankovic forcing......Page 345
11.3.4 Albedo......Page 350
11.4.2 Cosmogenic radionuclides......Page 352
11.4.3 Solar variability......Page 358
11.4.3.1 Solar variability and climate change......Page 362
12.1 Introduction......Page 365
12.2 The instrumental record of climate change......Page 366
12.3.1 Sources of paleo-information......Page 369
12.4 Sun and climate beyond the most recent two millennia......Page 377
13.1 Introduction......Page 383
13.2 Ionization......Page 385
13.3 Recombination......Page 387
13.4 Venus and Mars......Page 390
13.5 Ionospheres, exoplanets, and signatures of life......Page 393
14.1 Introduction......Page 395
14.2 Our experience of geospace climate change......Page 397
14.3 Geospace climate response to solar photon irradiation......Page 398
14.3.1 Maunder minimum geospace climate......Page 402
14.3.2 Grand maximum geospace climate......Page 404
14.4 Geospace climate at earlier terrestrial ages......Page 405
14.5.3 Geospace climate and the orientation of the Earth’s dipole......Page 414
14.5.4 Geospace climate dependence upon the solar wind......Page 416
14.6 Geospace climate response to anthropogenic change......Page 418
15.1 Atmospheric waves......Page 421
15.2 Examples of observed atmospheric waves......Page 424
Tides Figure 15.4 shows a long wave train of gravity waves visualized in clouds......Page 425
15.3.2 Mechanism for planetary wave motion......Page 427
15.3.4.2 Dispersion relation for Rossby waves......Page 429
15.3.4.3 Rossby-wave group propagation......Page 430
15.4.1.1 Dispersion relation for gravity waves......Page 431
15.5.2 Oscillations of an ideal ocean: Laplace’s tidal equation......Page 432
15.5.2.1 equation (limitingWavetypesforLaplace’stidal cases)......Page 433
15.5.2.2 Eigensolutions of Laplace’s tidal equation......Page 434
15.6 Oscillations of an atmosphere......Page 435
15.6.1.1 Vertical structure equation......Page 437
15.6.2 Eigensolutions for atmospheric waves......Page 438
15.6.3 Main free waves in the terrestrial atmosphere......Page 439
15.7.1 Laplace’s tidal theory for forced waves......Page 441
15.7.2 Small-scale gravity waves in an atmosphere......Page 442
15.7.3.1 Quasi-geostrophic dynamics......Page 443
15.8 Atmospheric waves on other planets......Page 444
15.9.2 Role in sudden stratospheric warmings......Page 445
15.11.1 Ionosphere–thermosphere response to periodic or stationary forcing......Page 449
15.11.2 Ionosphere–thermosphere response to impulsive forcing......Page 450
15.11.3 Traveling planetary waves in the ionosphere......Page 453
15.12 Consequences of changing the planetary rotation......Page 454
15.12.1 Planetary Rossby and gravity waves......Page 455
15.12.3 The variation of other planetary parameters (an exercise)......Page 456
16.1 Introduction......Page 457
16.2 The climate system......Page 458
16.3 Atmospheric photochemistry......Page 461
16.4 Ozone chemistry in the stratosphere......Page 463
16.5 Response of ozone to solar variability......Page 466
16.5.1 Ozone and temperature responses to the 11-year cycle......Page 467
16.5.2 Response of atmospheric ozone and temperature......Page 471
16.6.1 Meridional circulation......Page 473
16.6.3 Tropospheric dynamics......Page 476
16.7 Conclusions......Page 478
Appendix I Authors and editors......Page 481
List of illustrations......Page 483
List of tables......Page 492
References......Page 493
Index......Page 520